Hello,
Everyone welcome to my blog, here I am going to sahre my view upon given task. This task was about modernism and modernist poem. We have to find modernist symbol, metaphor and imagery from the very short poem.  Before starting let's know that what is modernism?

Modernism :-

‘Modernism’ might be said to have been characterised by a deliberate and often radical shift away from tradition, and consequently by the use of new and innovative forms of expression Thus, many styles in art and literature from the late 19th and early 20th centuries are markedly different from those that preceded them. The term ‘modernism’ generally covers the creative output of artists and thinkers who saw ‘traditional’ approaches to the arts, architecture, literature, religion, social organisation  had become outdated in light of the new economic, social and political circumstances of a by now fully industrialised society ‘modernism’ might be said to have been characterised by a deliberate and often radical shift away from tradition, and consequently by the use of new and innovative forms of expression Thus, many styles in art and literature from the late 19th and early 20th centuries are markedly different from those that preceded them. The term ‘modernism’ generally covers the creative output of artists and thinkers who saw ‘traditional’ approaches to the arts, architecture, literature, religion, social organisation had become outdated in light of the new economic, social and political circumstances of a by now fully industrialised society. 

The Main Characteristics of Modernist Literature :- 

• Individualism

• Experimentation

•  Absurdity

• Symbolism

•  Formalism

Characteristics of 20th Century Literature :-

1) 'The Embankment'- T.E.Hulme :-

Once, in finesse of fiddles found I ecstasy, 

 flash of gold heels on the hard pavement. 

Now see I 

That warmth’s the very stuff of poesy. 

Oh, God, make small 

The old star-eaten blanket of the sky, 

That I may fold it round me and in comfort lie.

   

This poem iterates, that only what is essential to human existence makes good poetry. In other words, good poetry deals with the necessary and includes only what is necessary. Hulme pushes this point home by choosing ‘fiddles’ and ‘gold heels’ as the images with which he rejects sound and sight respectively; both are associated with luxury, with what is not necessary but merely desired. But warmth is something different: warmth is not only desired but needed for us to live.

2)Darkness- by Joseph Campbell

I stop to watch a star shine in the boghole –
A star no longer, but a silver ribbon of light.
I look at it, and pass on.

In this poem we can find the modern metaphor like "Silver ribbon" and image like "Boghole". Joseph Campbell strict modern poet, his poem against the Victorian themes. The present poem's title itself suggest the contradiction between darkness and shiny star. speaker might be tell about the illusions in the life.

3) Image- by Edward Storer

"Forsaken lovers,

Burning to a chaste white moon

upon strange pyres of loneliness and drought".

In this poem, poet used the symbol of "white moon" as it connects the heart of two lover, but poet here used it in opposite side that it burns lovers and they can't chaste with each other. Their loneliness is there though they are together. So, here we can interpret that modernist think that we all are alone in crowd.

4) "In a station of the metro" by Ezra Pound

"The apparition of these faces in a crowd,
petals in wet, black bough

This poem's structure against the Victorian poems, Victorian used to write very lengthy poem but here poet use very short poem like the metro speed. Here, poet used very good metaphor "Petals on wet black bought". This poem suggest the busy life of city people they have not time to face each other like city life is lifeless. we can say that this poem is about the loneliness in crowd.

5)The pool- by Hilda Dolittle

"Are you alive?

I touched you

you quiver trembling like a sea fish

I cover you with my net

What are you banded one?

Very first line of the poem, 'Are you alive? arise the question of existence which is one of the important aspect of modern literature. People of modern time became like sea fish that they are controlled or bound by some chain that they can't free from them. The title "Pool" is also symbolize the stillness like water store in it which don't have flowness which is most important things in the life to flow from one to another.

6) "Insouciance"- By Richard Aldington

"In and out of the dreary trenches
Trudging cheerily under the stars
I make for myself little poems
Delicate as a flock of dovesin 
Thy fly away like white-winged Doves.

In this poem the poet presents that how people are living their life insouciance way with carelessness. They try to express their feeling in literature as poet says "I make for myself little poem" the way of living is with no excitement "In and out of the dreary trenches" but though all are walking on their path with such cheer, the reference of "White-winged Doves" is used for modern culture of living life and feeling of isolation is there.

7) “Morning at the Window”- T.S.Eliot

They are rattling breakfast plates in basement kitchens,
And along the trampled edges of the street
I am aware of the damp souls of housemaids
Sprouting despondently at area gates.
The brown waves of fog toss up to me
Twisted faces from the bottom of the street,
And tear from a passer-by with muddy skirts
An aimless smile that hovers in the air
And vanishes along the level of the roofs.

He present poem about the modern view of England. The main idea of the poem is poverty, it presents the picture of poor people. who have to face several hardship from morning to the late night.
There are vivid images that makes the poem imagist one for e.g- "Rattling breakfast plates", "Damp souls", "brown waves", "Twisted faces", "Muddy Skirts", "Aimless smile".

8) "The Red wheelbarrow- William carols 

William

so much depends

Upon
a red wheel
Barrow
glazed with rain
Water
beside the white
chickens

The poem sings a song of craftsmanship. Poet says, 'so much depends upon a red Wheelbarrow. It glazes in rain like white chickens. Though industry and factories have took place, craftsmanship is also important.

9) Anecdote of the Jar- Wallace Stevens

I placed a jar in Tennessee,  
And round it was, upon a hill.  
It made the slovenly wilderness  
Surround that hill.
The wilderness rose up to it,
And sprawled around, no longer wild.  
The jar was round upon the ground  
And tall and of a port in air.
It took dominion everywhere.  
The jar was gray and bare.
It did not give of bird or bush,  
Like nothing else in Tennessee.

This is a imaginative poem which exaggerate the picture of jar. Poet placed that jar upon hill, jar reminds us the Grecian urn of Keats. Poets sing the glory of the jar and also ask the question that which is superior 'a work of art or nature?'

10)   “ I” – E.E.Cummings

“A leaf falls with loneliness”

This is has many images, reader can interpret anything which they want. The image in the poem is loneliness and a leaf. we can connect with death of human with fallen leaf. So, isolation is the  main theme and image of this one line poem.

The Waste Land

 The Waste Land 

Introduction :-

T. S. Eliot as an important nature poet whose reflections on human/nature relations remain relevant to our current understanding of the environmental crisis. Challenging conventional associations of nature writing with rural places, the importance of urban-centred poetry in representing modern relationships with nature and voicing concern against the negative environmental impact of modernity. Focusing predominantly on The Waste Land the article explores the material reality of the poem’s landscapes, the under-examined centrality of place in Eliot’s work and the idea of the poem as a prescient warning of climate change. 

                                                                  T. S. Eliot not considered as a nature poet  Few writers have been as  influential in modernising literary representations of the physical environment, yet despite being the subject of exhaustive critical interest this aspect of Eliot’s work remains notably under-examined. The cause of this omission cannot be attributed to Eliot’s creative or critical output, which consistently foregrounds the physical, psychological and artistic importance of the non-human world and engages with the difficulty of representing it through language.

The Waste Land :-

The Waste Land should be considered a vital poem in the history of nature writing because it represents an important cultural response to a period of significant changes in human nature relations following the disruptive experience of war and modernity. T. S. Eliot was writing during a period of immense change in relation to urbanisation, when for the first time in Britain more people lived in the city than the countryside. The Waste Land is important in this context because it explores the physical and psychological impact of Britain’s transition from a rural to an urban nation. The poem reflects the reality of the rapid growth of urban places by making the city the vibrant focal point at the heart of modernity.

About the theme of The Waste Land, various interpretations have been given, Those interpretations are often conflicting and cintraductiry. One of the important themes of The Waste Land is 'a vision of dissolution and spiritual drought.' This spiritual drought arises from the degeneration, vulgarisation, and commercialisation of sex, Eliot's study of the source of life and vitality, when it is exercised for the sake of procreation and when it is an expression of love. But when it is severed from its primary function, and is exercised for the sake of momentary pleasure or monetary benefit, it becomes a source of degeneration and corruption. It then represents the primany of the flesh over the spirit, and this results in spiritual decay and death. It was a woman, and Adma's concupiscence or obedience to the flesh. that led to the original sin and the Fall of Man . and it is this very obedience to the flesh which accounts for the spiritual and emotional barrenness of the modern age. The Waste Land is sexual perversion amongthe middle-class people. This is seen in the mechanical relationship of the typist and the clerk. The typist gives herself to the clerk with a sense of total indifference and apathy. There is neither repulsion nor any pleasure, and this absence of feeling is a measure of the sterility of the age. It is just animal like copulation. As soon as the young man has departed , the typist rearranges her hair, and puts a record on the gramophone, ''with automatic hands''. This perversion of sex is also to be seen in the lower classes of society. The songs of three Thames daughters clearly show that they have been sexually exploited but they can do nothing about it. They and their people are too poor and too apathetic to make any efforts for the betterment of their lot Man has grown inhuman; humanity has lost its humanity.

online session taken by Dilip Barad sir :-

1) What are your views on the following image after reading 'The Waste Land'? Do you think that Eliot is regressive as compared to Nietzche's views? or Has Eliot achieved universality of thought by recalling mytho-historical answer to the contemporary malaise? 

Here we can see the conflict of different views between Eliot and Nietzsche. Eliot believe in supernatural power whereas Nietzsche like an atheist, but both are right in their own way. Through the mythical views like Upnishada ,logic, supernatural power and various cultures, Eliot wants to evoke the people that past is very good lesson to make  better future, people can learn through past and from supernatural things.

While Nietzsche believe in human power as 'superman', he is not believe in supernatural things and tradition, for him The God is dead and he says that man can survive and make better future himself.

So we cannot say that Eliot is regressive as compared to Nietzsche's  views because Eliot is using the past reference to answer contemporary malaise. Because myth and religion changed and influence in the way of thinking of the people, because religions are about the betterment of people it is path giver, you should blame people not religion. Every religion teach and developed the humanity in the people. There is one example in the Quran about Firon(Pharaoh)Egyptian King who believe himself as God and killed innocent people then God mentioned his hubris and gives lesson to upcoming generation to developed humanity instead of hatredness so we can say that religion cultivate morality. Every Holi book says that don't attache too much with material thing(life) all have to taste flavour of death, so be a spiritual soul. Nietzsche believe in "Ubermensch" who gave solution to the problem for contemporary crisis. For instance, we can take an example of Hitler, he also want to give solution to contemporary crisis but it bring chaos in the society. So, I personally do not support the views of Nietzsche.
 According to me, the views of Eliot can be considered as more realistic than Nietzsche, Nietzsche finds the solution of present in future while Eliot is finding the solution of present and future in past because past is like a mirror as well as lesson for people that is why Eliot make his views universally and realistic.

2.Prior to the speech, Gustaf Hellström of the Swedish Academy made these remarks: T.S. Eliot and S. Freud What are your views regarding these comments? Is it true that giving free vent to the repressed 'primitive instinct' lead us to happy and satisfied life? or do you agree with Eliot's view that 'salvation of man lies in the preservation of the cultural tradition'?

 Ans :- As per my views the idea of Freud of primitive instinct is more appropriate than the Eliot's view. For Freud the cause of confusion lies in discomfort and uneasiness in the culture of modern man whereas Eliot speaks about the preservation of the cultural tradition. Freud's view is direct and it clearly speaks about the satisfaction of human needs through satisfying primitive things. For Example- Human beings are always hungry and lustful creature and they like to satisfy their hunger with the process of sexual act.

Even if human grows older the desire never gets old. This should always remains in conscious or subconcious state and whenever they want they fulfils it.

Hence Freud's Idea is more powerful. Eliot Idea about preservation, self control is not work in the present time. As human grows older he/she may learn to control over his/her feelings but only because of age they are controlling but inside there is same desire as found in the Young generation, but because of inability they couldn't fulfills it.

Eliot speaks about the conscious state that, when  human was doing things consciously he/she can control his/her feelings or anything. But according to Freud there always the presence of subconscious state of mind that make us doing things which we can't imagine or never think of it directly.

3) Write about allusions to the Indian thoughts in 'The Waste Land'.

Ans :- In the entire poem there are lots of reference which describes the indian though indirectly. Some of them are:-

a) Three 'Da' :-
    1)Datta- to give not only charity but giving oneself for some noble cause.
     2) Dayadhvam- Sympathies yourself with the sorrows and suffering of others, come out of your isolation and love into others.
      3)Damyata- Self control, control over one's passion and desire.

b) Shantih Shlok :-
The peace that passes beyond all understanding. We always get peace at the end. Similarly the poem also ends with the hope that one day everything should be redeemed.

c) Holy river Ganga :-
"Ganga was sunken, and the limp lives, waited for rain, while the black clouds, Gathered far distant, over Himavant....."
Eliot also used the reference of the Mythical Indian Holy river Ganga which was known for its purity.

Indian thoughts :-
There is very important reason of making the use of Indian thoughts in 'Wasteland'. Whenever foreigners think of India, they think of Spiritualistic value rather than materialistic. In a way Indian culture answers to the problems which was faced by the west. Whenever the west is rotten, the great poet of west looks at India to find solution, to attain spirituality. That is the thing which makes Indian people to feel pride.

Indian Idea of Spirituality always attracted the western people who came in India just to get peace which they were not found in any corner of the world. In India there are most of faithful and spiritual people living who with their positive wives affects and attracts the other.

Eliot referred Indian Thoughts. Eliot finds sexual perversion, spiritual decay everywhere and with a hope to get solution he looks on the Indian Idea of spirituality to attain salvation. But he ended his poem with hope, even he is not sure that whether it could be done, achieved or not. That's why Freaud's concept of ubermensch becomes more powerful because it goes progressively and also offers solution.'

 Thanks !!

Study of Frames in Charles Chaplin's "Modern Times" and "The Great Dictator"

 Hello Readers!

In the online class on 7 April, as Dilip Barad sir gave a task to watch both these films and study frames of the films. On  The Modern Times & The Great Dictator.

Charlie Chaplin  :-(April 16, 1889 ­ December 25, 1977)

Charlie Chaplin, who brought laughter to millions worldwide as the silent "Little Tramp" clown, had the type of deprived childhood that one would expect to find in a Dickens novel. Born in East Street, Walworth, London on 16 April, 1889,  Charles Spencer Chaplin was the son of a music hall singer and his wife. Charlie Chaplin's parents divorced early in his life, with his father providing little to no support, either financial or otherwise, leaving his mother to support them as best she could. Chaplin's mother Hannah was the brightest spot in Charlie's childhood; formerly an actor on stage, she had lost her ability to perform, and managed to earn a subsistence living for herself, Charlie, and Charlie's older half ­brother Sidney by sewing. She was an integral part of Charlie's young life, and he credited her with much of his success. Sadly, she slowly succumbed to mental illness, and by the time that Charlie was 7 years old, she was confined to an asylum; Charlie and Sidney were relegated to a workhouse­­ not for the last time. After 2 months, she was released, and the family was happily reunited, for a time. In later years, she was readmitted for an 8­month stretch later, during which time  Charlie lived with his alcoholic father and stepmother, in a strained environment .

Frames from "Modern Times" :-

In Modern Times , Charlie Chaplin plays a factory worker at the Electro Steel Company, tightening nuts on a fast-moving conveyor belt. One scene shows a mechanical contraption designed to feed workers lunch while they remain on the assembly line, but it malfunctions, throwing soup in Charlie’s face. Other scenes depict a capitalist owner who maintains closed-circuit surveillance over the plant and demands increases in the speed of the line. Unable to keep pace, Charlie falls into the giant gears. He has a nervous breakdown, and loses his job. On the street, he’s mistaken for a communist leader and arrested. He accidentally prevents a jailbreak, is pardoned and released, but with his old steel plant idle, Charlie cannot find employment, and begins to long for the shabby security of incarceration. The political message of “Modern Times” would seem unmistakable.

 This frame talk's about Time Management. You Gain a Sense of Fulfillment. Once your time management efforts start to pay off in the form of accomplishments. You Relieve Stress. Managing your time can have a direct impact on your stress level . It Improves Self-Discipline. If you are good at managing your time, you’re probably also very self-disciplined. but as we are not able to make a time for our-self in this  modern world . we can see that people is wasting there time in doing instead of being a happy .

This both image talk about the Reality of people who is working . We can say that director has try to show  picture of city that how  people are walking like a sheep on the SUBWAY with there food. we can also say that now human are becoming robot by only giving a most of time to work and reason of that they are not able to enjoy life and we have also watch in this movie that chaplin used to fix bolt when he is fir from the job , so we can say that job was hire from him but then also in  his mind job was  still  alive.
 

we get to know that honor of the factory  is playing gaming in his office and worker's are doing hardwork   by that we get and idea that how upper class people use middle class people and pay then less amount and most of the profit they only get.

This  image shows that how on the one slide  factory honor is reading a newspaper and on the second hand people are working as a machine in the factory and we can also get idea that he has an assistant who give her medicine at fix time.  at the one side if worker has to go out of the work then also he need some one who take a place of him then only he might go. because machine did not understand human emotion.

 while watching this 3 image in our mind comes "Big Boss" ( upaar vala sab dekhta ha !!) in first image we can see that there is a boss who has having a coat and he is looking at all his worker throw his chair and giving a advice to worker. on the second had we can see that there is one young man who has not wear proper cloths and when his boss call him he come quicky but putting all his work aslide nd in the last image we get to know that how when charles is in the washroom and when boss give a order "get back to work " then he started working. so, we can say that boss is watching him throw cctv and he want that all worker do work  as robot .

when security guard is whistling  that time all the criminal  start working in one direction, in the first whistle the all open there cell and stand  in one row on second  whistle they start going to eat there food , on third whistle they start eating food and on fourth whistle  they go towords there cell and at the finale whistle they all go inside the cell. all the thing is going in whistle.

In the first picture we can see that it is an imagination of there home and house and all the things are in proper position and when he wanted to eat fruit  then he is easily plucking  out and eating grasp and when he need milk then cow come near his home and he take out milk so, we can say that this image is of ambition that people are free to imagine and people always think of being rich person in the second image we can see that his real life is totally different where house is maid up of wood and when Chaplin put his hand on any thing then then it started falling and when Chaplin sit for break fast  that time chair brock and it's show the reality of life that how middle class people has to struggle for "A cup of tea ".

On the one image we can see that in imagine house where here he think of being rich person with that he is following  a habit of upper class people and having his food with spoon and on the second side we can see that how Charlie comes in real world where the middle class people has to eat food with there hands. so, both the image show's the upper class & middle class life style of eating food .

when Chaplin is not able to  remember  the song's word then his friend tell him that he will write on his cuff but while dancing when the paper is lost then he is not able to speak a single word then his  friend tell him to speak a word then started speaking a thing by his skill and all enjoyed it so, instead of doing copy we should do hardwork . we can compare with student that how when his or her copy part is missed then he or she is not able to write and on the second side some student do hard work 24 hours 7 days then also not able to get good score , but some student who read during exam and achive  grand score by trick .

Charlie Chaplin attacks Hitler in The Great Dictator :-

The Great Dictator was Charlie Chaplin's first truly talking picture, and when it was finally released in 1940, it was a worldwide sensation. Many people mistakenly think that the character of the Jewish Barber in the film is the Tramp, but Charlie Chaplin was adamant that they are different characters. Although the barber uses many of the Tramp's mannerisms, he is also clearly an individual in his own right. And the barber is far more long­winded, as the famous "Look Up, Hannah" speech at the end of the movie reminds us.

In order to gain acceptance, politicians tend to touch the soft corners of public which is children. as we know that children mind are pure they does not know the politics so, if someone speak nice to theme then they can easily started believing theme so,  Such political stunts are still relevant in today's time. Politicians knows the mass psychology and also know how to win people's heart. In order to collect  majority vote they follow such practices. they provide tablet to collage student because they know they are fresher and now, they are able to give vote .

Dictators are majorly in self-love. they spend just only think  of himself They give orders to prepare statues and portraits of themselves so that their identity remains recorded in the history. People come under the influence of the gigantic lifestyle of power people and start making temples of them instead of questioning them. we can connect with the political leaders that  how they keep on wasting money in making idol . they are increasing  tax on m necessity thing and using that money  for making rich people comfortable and not thinking about poor people who is not getting one time food.

The barber shop is also considered as the discussion corner of various political events.  whenever we go to Barbers shop we  forgot everything and we fell relax in Barbers shop and often Barbers used to ask or try to make conversation with us about society and politics leader. It throw the light of reality .

The dream sequence begins after Garbage's dialogue. Hynkel's hunger for power is highlighted in this frame. He plays with the balloon  we see that here balloon is taken as the world map. that how politic gets a right to dictat upon the world if he wish then he can make a  modern world and if he want to destroy a world then also he can . so, we can know by this image that who has a power they can dictator upon  the world.

the double role of charlie chaplin makes significant mark in the film. people think that hynkel is making a speech but it is barber who is giving a remarkable note on liberty and equality. all have equal rights to live peaceful life and earn good wage.

so, while  watching both movies we can  say that Charlie Chaplin has try to show the reality of society that how middle class people has to suffer a lot in world and how upper class people is ruling with them .

Indian Poetics

 Indian Poetics :-

Literary criticism in India has its genesis in the encyclopaedic Nātyaśāstra of Bharata around 2nd c. AD and later alamkāra school of thought after late 6th c. AD. It is common knowledge that Sanskrit literary criticism has its conceptual moorings in 
grammar and Indian darśanas.1 Poetics in ancient India involved philosophical speculation and theoretical formulation which are crucial for a robust system building. Consequently, there are some questions that Indian poetics addresses.

a) What constitutes kavya?
b) What is the most important element for the literariness of kavya?
c) How is literary meaning produced/ arrived at? 
d) What is the end of literary representation?
e) What is the nature of literary meaning?
f) What is the nature of aesthetic experience?
g) Where is the locus of aesthetic experience art, artist, or beholder?
h) What are the criteria for classification of literary and non-literary texts?

As a result of obtaining concerns such as above, theoretical departures developed into various thought systems. This proclivity to theorization often led modern scholars to consider, and at times doubt, relevance and applicability of Indian literary theories. Amidst the clouds of misgivings in modern criticism, it should be duly clarified that Indian literary theories inhere in enough scope for practical criticism. However, it should be noted that the investigative exegetical models derived from Indian literary theories tend to be constitutive in nature without being polemical.

Critical analysis of literature is an interpretive activity that makes sense out of what is otherwise abstruse so is usually understood. In Sanskrit intellectual tradition, on the other hand, this point of view has been carefully developed in relation especially to knowledge literature. For in vangamaya  that is comprised of both sastra and kavya, there is a well-established system of interpretation or sastra-paddhati that has evolved in the light of Vedic, sastraic and philosophical literature. 

Knowledge propounded in sastras is established by its own validity of empirical scientific truth or theological wisdom which exists independent of individual authority. In order to get at comprehensive logical understanding of the concerned matter, sastra-paddhati involves a thorough system analysis such as it considers (a) what has already been said on the issue or antecedent opposing viewpoint, (b) the original and changed context, (c) linguistic paraphrase and explanation, (d) four pramanas that may be specific to any school of thought ., pratyaksa (perception); anumana (inference); upamana (analogy); abhyasa (experience); and sastra vacana or sabda (verbal testimony). Further, sastra paddhati involves  :-

1) sarvabhauma siddhanta (the principle to be upheld), 

2) sruti,

3) darsana-smrti, 

4) itihasa, 

5) sangati (coherence)

6) paribhasa nyaya (rules of interpretation),

 7) loka nyaya(judgement from common experience), 

8) nirvacana (etymology),

 9) vyakarana, 

10) sabda sakti . 

This strong set of  investigative modalities is applied for analysing meaning in knowledge literature.Kavya  has its distinction from sastra in vangamaya and validity of its proposition, unlike sastra, is contingent on individual. That is, kavya does not have knowledge as its first and only motive, hence no interpretation. Statements in kavya are primarily analysed for their ‘charm’, literary conception and expression. In this light one may see why Indian literary theories are constitutive theories that provide frameworks to explain how the texts are formed, how the meaning is developed and through what kinds of linguistic and literary devices. This constitutive analysis consequently explains the sources of delight, their literary contrivance and literary relish on neuro-psychological grounds. This notwithstanding, the powerful sastrapaddhati may be used in interpreting literature.

Literary analysis in Sanskrit criticism abounds in principles such as rasa, alamkara, riti, guna-dosa, dhvani, vakrokti, and aucitya and each of these provide exhaustive literary exegesis within its own concerns as well as relate to each other in the course of matter. However, critical pursuit carried out under these principles would naturally be specific in nature according to their questions. What Rajasekhara affords is a sort of analytical framework that responds to a number of literary and non-literary aspects pertaining to construction of a text and its meaning. Indeed,Rajasekhara’s ken of model analysis being so large, a particular literary instance for critical observation may not do justice to its richness. Interestingly enough, Kavyamimamsa is not the work of poetics proper. Rather, it is a samgraha text, i.e. a text for pedagogical purpose and more so, it is a kavisiksa text. A kavisiksa text, unlike other theoreticalworks, does not expound any literary principle. It is constructed for practical reasons such as instructing the poet about conceiving, composing, drafting, receiving and analysing poetry. Rajasekhara’s exegetical model, which is distinctly mapped out, inheres in the following concerns:

a. narrative dramatic elements

b. types of lexis (sabda and pada)

c. types of poets 

d. nature and sources of literary meaning

e. appropriation of meaning and its pertinence or impertinence

f. modes of sentences

These critical concerns are a set of generalised constitutive categories that can be put to exegetical purport irrespective of difference in culture,language and literature. Here, a model analysis on William Butler Yeats’s ‚Sailing to Byzantium‛ is attempted to show Rajasekhara’s relevance in analysing contemporary texts, even in alien linguistic system and culture.

Rajasekhara distinguishes three units of composition: (i) pada (fully inflected word, a morphological construction), (ii) vakya (sentence), (iii) vacana (statement). Occurrence of these formal categories in a poem can be analysed and quantified.

Rajasekhara informs that poets have a knack for using one or the other vrttis more amongst all and even sub-generic varieties may be identified in terms of predominance of one or the other vrtti. For instance, narrative poem which has dramatic element in it would have greater number of verbs or verbal phrases in comparison to other type like lyric.

Literary discourse and general communication of the people pertain to Manusa vacana. It has figures of speech and other qualities of riti. Meaning here is not as crucial as it is in Brahma or saiva vacanas, for a mode of expression draws much attention to itself. And in literary instance meaning has to be reconstructed out of oblique expression. In this poem, for instance, (the) meaning is of attaining salvation. The world-weary poet finds his liberation in the world of art where he would attain to a blissful stasis in the form of an artifice singing forever ‚of what is past, or passing, or to come.‛  As the theme of reposing in permanent bliss constructs an idea of a heavenly abode, meaning of the poem also lends itself to the other category of Divya-manusa vacana wherein a mortal being seeks after a heightened consciousness.

four sources of meaning, which are more like modes of rendition:

uccitasamyoga (in appropriate context), 

yokrtsamyoga (extended simile);
utpadyasamyoga (showing likeness),

samyogavikara (change of form due to union)

These categories facilitate in evaluating appropriateness of the sources of an idea and their significance for the whole meaning of the composition. All the four pertain to structural framework of the poem and are cognizable in the process of signification. One may attempt to see the ‚Sailing‛ in this light. The poem opens with a plain statement: ‚That is no country for old men.‛ Use of determinative ‘That’ makes opening of the poem noticeable and leaves an impression of continuity of argument in whose sequence the whole poem is a part. This apart, the poem does not impart within embellishing tropes, alliteration or other such literary devices. The imagery of ‚crowded seas‛ with salmon-falls and mackerel, emaciated aged man, sages purging in ‚God’s holy fire‛, gold-laden city, for instance, is synchronised with linguistic and literary austerity. This pertinence observed at structural level makes it favourable for uccitasamyoga, where all linguistic and literary devices exist in harmony and cast a uniform impact on the thematic aspect. These samyogas here must not be literally understood as sources of meaning, though they are discussed under this category by Rajasekhara. These samyogas have their teleological significance which, however, like other sources, lies in their efficacy to affect the process of apprehension of meaning, which is an added edge in communication.Thus, uccitasamyoga realised in the ‚Sailing‛ stands as a poetic merit in the process of signification.

Ideas present in the poem can be traced in the following sources:

1. Loka: (experience of the world) in lines I.

2. Sea voyaging: (reference to the ancient mode of transportation) in II.

3. Education institute: (Byzantium as a hub of artistic activities) in II.

4. Itihasa: ‚city of Byzantium‛ in II., and ‚Grecian goldsmiths‛ in IV.

5. Prakirna: (it includes 64 arts of which there is svarnaratna parisodhan(connoisseurship of gold/diamonds)) ‚gold mosaic‛ in III.18; ‚hammered gold and gold enamelling‛ in IV. 

6. Polity: (reference to the governing authority) ‚drowsy Emperor‛ in IV.

7. Viracana: (creation) poet’s own imagination of his turning into a golden artifice in III.

All these ideas have such sources as their backdrop. Number of sources, their valid understanding, and their appropriate relation to the theme speaks of the poet’s erudition and experience of life. Even if a poet uses private symbols, a reader unbeknown to them would still partially cognise them, for the sources from which symbols are drawn act as shared knowledge. A refuge to the world of art is poet’s own wish and for which Byzantium becomes a symbol of liberation from human limitations. Here, the poet’s state is that of a seeker of truth. The search for internal peace is the major source of meaning.

In this poem arises the issue of poetic reality and scientific truth. Yeats finds his escape in an inanimate piece of object. If life is marked by constant flux, art is perceived with permanent stasis. It is this binary opposition that has inspired many western poets to privilege art over life. This becomes a starting point for any reading, particularly deconstructive. One may reconcile this rough patch by resorting to Rajasekhara’s argument that problem arises only when what is apparent but not real is taken for its surface value. Here, the poet has an apparent wish for his transformation into an artifice, which has an attribute of changelessness. This Yeatsian thesis can well nigh be understood in the Joycean term ‘stasis’ bliss. To Joyce, art is stasis when brought about by the formal rhythm of beauty. Art is that beauty which is divorced from good and evil and so akin to truth. Truth is best approached through intellection and beauty through the three stages of apprehension, . integritas (wholeness), consonantia (harmony), and claritas (radiance). The definition of beautiful starts with the sensory recognition, ‘that is beautiful the apprehension of which pleases’. The epistemological conflict of aesthetics sets in from here when the idea of beauty gains abstraction while predicating on the ephemeral and gross sense perception. [For the full account, see Joyce’s A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916)]. This entire proposition is informed of Greek theory of art and European Scholasticism which retains the dyadic structure of art and nature; mind and matter; transient and eternal. And this dyadic structure reverts to itself ad infinitum.

Thank you,

Dilip Barad sir

Words :- 1823

The Setting of the 20th Century Literature

 The Setting of the 20th Century Literature :-

Important movements in drama, poetry, fiction, and criticism took shape in the years before, during, and after World War I. The eventful period that followed the war left its imprint upon books of all kinds. Literary forms of the period were extraordinarily varied, and in drama, poetry, and fiction the leading authors tended toward radical technical experiments.

Although drama had not been a major art form in the 19th century, no type of writing was more experimental than a new drama that arose in rebellion against the glib commercial stage. In the early years of the 20th century, Americans traveling in Europe encountered a vital, flourishing theatre; returning home, some of them became active in founding the Little Theatre movement throughout the country. Freed from commercial limitations, playwrights experimented with dramatic forms and methods of production, and in time producers, actors, and dramatists appeared who had been trained in college classrooms and community playhouses. Some Little Theatre groups became commercial producers for example, the Washington Square Players, founded in 1915, which became the Theatre Guild . The resulting drama was marked by a spirit of innovation and by a new seriousness and maturity.

The Setting of the 20th Century Literature  session taken by Dilip Barad sir " :-

Detective fictions :-

From ancient Greece on, fictional narratives have entailed deciphering mystery. Sophocles’ Oedipus must solve the mystery of the plague decimating Thebes; the play is a dramatization of how he ultimately “detects” the culprit responsible for the plague, who turns out to be Oedipus himself. In the Poetics, Aristotle defines a successful plot as one that has a conflict  that rises to a climax, followed by a resolution of the conflict, a plot line that describes not only Oedipus Rex but also every Sherlock Holmes story.

A particular genre of mystery writing is defined by the mystery at the center of the story that is crucially, definitively solved by a particular person known as a detective, either private or police, who by ratiocination uncovers and sorts out the relevant facts essential to a determination of who did the crime and how and why. The form of detective fiction throughout most of the 19th century was the short story published in various periodicals of the period. A few longer detective fictions were published as separate books in the 19th century, but book-length detective fiction, such as that by Agatha Christie, was really a product of the 20th century.

Most critics of detective fiction see the beginning of the genre in the three stories of Edgar Allan Poe which feature his amateur detective, Auguste Dupin, and were published in the 1840s. Although Poe’s 1840s stories as well as Arthur Conan Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes stories, which first appeared in the 1880s, are probably the most well known of 19th-century detective fictions, a number of other writers of generically recognizable detective fiction published stories in the almost fifty years between Poe and Conan Doyle, including a number that featured female detectives. Finally, from the 1890s into the early 20th century, a plethora of new detective fictions, still in short-story form for the most part, appeared not only in Britain but also in France and the United States.

Detective fiction has always been popular, but serious critical interest in the genre only developed in the 20th century. In the second half of that century, this critical interest expanded into the academic world. The popularity of the genre has only continued to grow. Both detective fictions and critical interest in the genre from a variety of perspectives are now an international phenomenon, and detective novels dominate many best-seller lists.

The word detective entered the English language in the mid-1800s, but it is ultimately derived from the Latin detegere, meaning “to uncover.” The label “detective” was not in common usage until there were actual official detectives, which did not happen until the mid-Victorian period, especially after the detective branch of the Metropolitan Police was instituted in 1842 with eight professionals, including two “inspectors.” In 1878, the detective branch was reorganized and renamed the Criminal Investigation Department . By 1888, there were eight hundred officers in the CID.

At almost the same period as the detective branch of the Metropolitan Police was evolving, the genre of detective fiction was also emerging, mainly in the short-story form. In these stories, a mystery or a crime occurs, and an amateur or professional detective is called in to solve it. The detective reveals the solution only at the end of the narrative, when he or she explains how the solution was reached, often through the scientific method conclusions drawn from material evidence. The settings of detective fictions are usually contemporary with the time written and frequently take place in urban areas.

The interest and pleasure in reading detective fiction, for the most part, come from discovering the way the detective uncovers the criminal and the criminal’s motive, which generally are a surprise to everybody, including the reader. The criminal is usually an individual, not part of a professional crime organization, which can be reassuring to the reader. The usually idiosyncratic personality of the detective as well as his or her inevitable success in solving the crime are other pleasures for the readers, which keep them coming back for more adventures of the specific detective whether Sherlock Holmes or, later, Miss Marple or Lord Peter Wimsey. Thus another characteristic of most detective fiction is that the detective goes on to solve other crimes in other stories, making the series an important part of the creation of the character of the detective and the popularity of the genre.

A good number of critics of 19th-century British detective fiction, especially those in the early 20th century, included in their discussions and analyses the detectives in two canonized novels that appeared around the time of the establishment of the detective branch of the Metropolitan Police, the well-known novels Bleak House, by Charles Dickens , whose police detective is Inspector Bucket, and The Moonstone, by Wilkie Collins , whose police detective is Sergeant Cuff. However, these classic novels are not centrally constructed around the detective’s work, nor do they culminate in the detective’s revelation of both the criminal who did the crime and how and why he or she did it. Nonetheless, many early critical studies of Victorian detective fiction discuss only Poe’s Dupin, Dickens’s Bucket , Collins’s Sergeant Cuff, and, mainly, Conan Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes. Coupled with feminist-inspired efforts to recover forgotten works by 19th-century women writers, the critical interest in detective fiction led to the discovery of many forgotten detective fiction writers between the 1840s and World War I. Finally, starting in the second half of the 20th century, critical attention tried to account for the popularity of the genre, using Freudian, Marxist, structuralist, feminist, and postcolonial critiques.

British detective fiction from 1840 to 1914 traces an arc of development from a few precursors to Poe’s Dupin stories and on through a variety of authors and detectives  in the second half of the 19th century to the 1890s and Sherlock Holmes, arguably the best-known fictional detective in the world. Contemporaneous with the Sherlock Holmes stories and frequently influenced by them are an increasing variety of male and female detectives, including, for example, insurance investigators, educated women, doctors, and even a Catholic priest. After World War I, a new arc of development begins with Agatha Christie and the Golden Age of Detective Fiction.

British Detective Fiction after Sherlock Holmes: 1893–1914 :-

The supposed death of Sherlock Holmes in 1893 coincides with another expansion of British detective fiction. New fictional detectives appeared regularly in the magazines from 1893 to 1914; there was, understandably, less publication of the genre during World War I, though there was some.  Many of the new post-Holmes detective stories followed and, in some cases, developed variations on the structure of Conan Doyle, and many of the new detectives, both male and female, had elements of Sherlock Holmes in them. After World War I the detective story moved in a somewhat different direction from its 19th-century predecessors, into the period that has been called the Golden Age of Detective Fiction. This “golden age” began with Agatha Christie’s first detective novel, The Mysterious Affair at Styles, in 1920 and includes, besides Christie, the detective novels of Margery Allingham, Dorothy Sayers, and Ngaio Marsh, as well as Michael Innes, Edmund Crispin, and others in Britain. In France there was George Simenon and, in the United States, John Dickson Carr, Ellery Queen, and S. S. Van Dine. Also at this point in the United States, a new type of detective fiction, known as the “hard-boiled school” of Dashiell Hammett and Raymond Chandler, moved away from the British model. The period between 1893 and 1914 is a kind of interregnum in the development of detective fiction in Britain. Thus this period is a convenient marker of the end of the development of 19th-century detective fiction in Britain.

Among the detectives who appeared in the wake of Sherlock Holmes’s death and reappearance, there was one who had been an insurance investigator; another was a ghost exposer, and at least five were women, one even being a so-called New Woman.11 The first husband-and-wife team of detectives also made their appearance during this period, as did the first armchair detective; another was a doctor, and one was a Roman Catholic priest. Detective fiction also expanded in the United States and in France during these years. In 1913 the first book-length study of the detective fiction genre appeared, The Technique of the Mystery Story, by Carolyn Wells, a prolific American writer who wrote many detective novels. Her guide to detective fiction gave a picture of the field just before the golden age began and included references to many still relatively unknown writers and detectives.

When Conan Doyle decided to kill Sherlock Holmes and end the series, the editors of the Strand scrambled to find a substitute for the popular series. They found Arthur Morrison, who is known now mainly for novels of London poverty. His detective was Martin Hewitt, whose first case, “The Lenton Croft Robberies,” a locked-room mystery, appeared in the Strand in March 1894, three months after Holmes’s supposed demise in “The Final Problem” in December 1893. Twenty-four of Morrison’s Martin Hewitt stories followed , ultimately nineteen of which were collected into three volumes Martin Hewitt, Investigator, The Chronicles of Martin Hewitt , and The Adventures of Martin Hewitt , the next six in The Red Triangle, Being Some Further Chronicles of Martin Hewitt , which also featured Morrison’s answer to Holmes’s Moriarty, Mayes the master criminal.

 Thank you ,

Dilip Barad sir

word :-1767